Children were recruited from a large number of schools. This may have inevitably been a biased sample of highly motivated parents and children, given the demands of the study, such as attendance at the study center, keeping of a 3-d diet record, and daily, timed urine collection over 10 d.
Nevertheless, accuracy should be greater with well-motivated parents recording their child's EI. Our decision to use a 3-d diet record rather than a longer period of recording was based on the practical consideration that it is unreasonable to expect even highly motivated parents to record their child's EI for longer periods.
In addition, because accurate food intake recording is very time consuming and requires recall of often complex daily events, the longer the time period of the food record, the greater the risk of mistakes, whether deliberate or unintentional.
Mean values for TEE and reported EI were similar in our study, and consequently the mean level of misreporting was low. There are several explanations for these discrepant observations. First, it is possible that subjects were undereating or overeating during the period of the 3-d diet record, although subjects could still have been in energy balance over the d period of the DLW study.
Because of practical difficulties, we did not weigh the children at the end of the DLW study to detect whether they had been in energy balance; we recommend that future studies address this issue. In a study of obese adult men, most of whom underreported their EI, Goris et al 11 showed that total underreporting of EI could be explained by undereating as well as failure to record all food consumed. A second possible explanation for the discrepancies between reported EI and measured TEE lies in the varied lifestyle patterns of children.
For example, even for highly motivated parents, it is less easy to record accurately all foods eaten by more active children who are away from home for long periods during their various activities. Future validation studies of EI in children should include an independent measure of physical activity so that appropriate adjustments can be made. When evaluating EI from food records, one of the limitations of using the Goldberg cutoffs is that they are not adjusted for different levels of physical activity.
Although our study was not designed to independently measure physical activity, we did find a significant inverse relationship between misreporting and physical activity level. Clearly, the relation between a child's reported dietary EI and physical activity requires further investigation. A third possible explanation for the individual discrepancies between reported EI and measured TEE is that the underrecording or overrecording of a child's dietary intake by parents may be deliberate or unintentional.
In Western society, there is a high degree of sensitivity about personal information, such as food intake, and an awareness that individuals are judged on the type and amount of food they eat. McDiarmid et al 40 showed that adults who were found to underreport their food intake admitted in a subsequent interview that their food records were not representative of their habitual intake.
Similarly, parents may be embarrassed about the type or amount of food that their children eat and may offer them what they consider to be healthy foods during the period of the food record or deliberately not record foods that were eaten underrecording.
In addition, although parents may accurately record their child's EI at home, if their child spends a significant amount of time in activities under the supervision of other adults, parents must rely on reports of EI either from their child or from other adult caretakers who may not be as committed to the study. Consistent with findings in adults, our study showed that a higher reported fat intake was associated with a tendency to overestimate EI However this finding would be expected from the definition of misreporting because increased consumption of fat, an energy dense macronutrient, is related to greater EI and hence a higher degree of overreporting.
Fifty-five percent of children in the current study had reported EI higher than TEE, indicating that there was a slight bias toward overreporting. In addition, there was no relationship between misreporting and either age, sex, BMI, BMI z score, weight, weight z score, or percentage of body fat.
These results are contrary to those reported in adults showing that EI by weighed diet record is biased toward underestimation of habitual intake, especially in heavier individuals 11 , The influence of parental adiposity on misreporting of EI in children has yielded inconsistent results and this complex area requires further investigation 4 , 13 , Studies in older children aged 10 y and adolescents have shown a positive association, similar to that found in adults, between underreporting and a tendency toward greater body fatness and body weight 2 , 3 , 7.
There are many possible reasons for the difference in the determinants of misreporting between the current study and those in older subjects. For the young children in our study, EI was recorded by parents, whereas older children, adolescents, and adults take the responsibility for recording their own food intake. Issues pertaining to body image and current dieting behavior become more important influences in the lives of older children and could therefore affect the accuracy of self-reported food records, as was shown in adult studies 44 , The results of the present study and the existing EI studies in younger children aged 1—9 y suggest less misreporting of dietary EI than in older children and adolescents 3 , 4 , 7 , A possible explanation is that in younger children, there is more parental control and supervision of food intake and therefore the parent can more accurately report the child's EI.
In contrast, in older children who normally self-report their EI, there is a tendency toward more unstructured eating patterns and eating away from home, leading to a greater degree of forgetfulness and thus, underestimation of EI.
Although misreporting appears to be age-related, we minimized this effect in our study by selecting prepubertal children in a tight age range 6—9 y. The children and parents in our study were reasonably representative of the Australian population and hence our findings are likely generalizable to other westernized societies. The use of TEE from DLW as an independent marker of food intake in the present study has shown that, at the individual level, 3-d food records lack precision.
We thank the children and their parents who gave their time to this study and Melissa Wake and Ross Lazarus for making the raw data from the Health of Young Victorians Study available to us. Use of tape-recorded food records in assessing children's dietary intake. Google Scholar.
Assessment of energy intake underreporting by doubly labeled water and observations on reported nutrient intakes in children. J Am Diet Assoc ; 98 : — 3.
Total energy expenditure and physical activity as assessed by the doubly labeled water method in Swedish adolescents in whom energy intake was underestimated by 7-d diet records. Am J Clin Nutr ; 67 : — Validity of reported energy intake in preadolescent girls. Underreporting of energy intake in biracial children is verified by doubly labeled water. J Am Diet Assoc ; 7 : — 9. Comparison of energy intake by semiquantitative food-frequency questionnaire with total energy expenditure by the doubly labeled water method in young children.
Validation of estimates of energy intake by weighed dietary record and diet history in children and adolescents. Am J Clin Nutr ; 56 : 29 — Energy expenditure by doubly labeled water: validation in humans and proposed calculation. Am J Physiol ; : R — Schoeller DA , van Santen E. Measurement of energy expenditure in humans by doubly labeled water method.
J Appl Physiol ; 53 : — 9. Seven-day validation of doubly labeled water method using indirect room calorimetry. J Appl Physiol ; 74 : — 9. Undereating and underrecording of habitual food intake in obese men: selective underreporting of fat intake. Am J Clin Nutr ; 71 : — 4. Total energy expenditure and energy intake in the pre-school child: a comparison.
Comparison of multiple-pass hour recall estimates of energy intake with total energy expenditure determined by the doubly labeled water method in young children. Subjects with a higher body mass index, that is, fatter subjects, generally move less because of the higher cost of weight-bearing activities. The higher AEE in fatter subjects is not higher in proportion to the higher cost for weight-bearing activities.
Obese subjects move slower and have lower endurance. In conclusion, energy expenditure is higher in larger subjects due to higher energy expenditure for maintenance. However, smaller and leaner subjects generally move more as activity energy expenditure in larger subjects is not higher in proportion to the cost of moving with a higher body weight.
Food intake affects energy expenditure through effects on all three components of TEE. In addition, food intake affects REE and AEE as a function of energy balance where effects of overfeeding are different from energy restriction.
There does not seem to be an additional effect of overfeeding on physical activity as reviewed before. A recent study suggested a specific effect of overfeeding on energy expenditure in relation to the protein content of the diet. Physical activity index, total energy expenditure as a multiple of resting energy expenditure, before and during overfeeding data from references 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , Energy restriction does induce adaptive changes in energy expenditure.
The adaptive change in REE was explained by a lower tissue metabolism and subjects moving less explained adaptive change in AEE. Similar but less pronounced adaptations in energy expenditure have been observed in overweight and obese subjects on an energy-restricted diet. Energy restriction induces a reduction in REE below predicted values, as based on the new body composition reached after underfeeding-induced weight loss.
Van Gemert et al. The adaptive AEE reduction induced by restricting energy intake in overweight and obese subjects is larger, and can be explained by a reduction in body movement and an increase in muscle efficiency. The difference in effect of overfeeding and energy restriction on REE and AEE probably is a consequence of natural selection. Compensatory mechanisms sparing energy to decrease weight loss and increase weight gain had survival value in an environment where food was not always available, as during ancestral life.
Never in human history, there has been continual food abundance as during the last 50 years. Thus, we nowadays live in an environment where overeating is common, with the consequent risk for getting overweight and obese.
One condition is a negative energy balance. Kempen et al. It seems to be difficult to comply with an exercise program without compensating for and exercise-induced increase in energy expenditure by increasing energy intake. Physical activity decreases with increasing age, on average from about age of 50 years onwards. Exposing young adults and subjects over 50 years to the same day strenuous hill walking activity induced an increase in food intake in the young subjects, whereas the older subjects ate 4 MJ per day less than the average 21 MJ per day energy expenditure.
Despite the presence of increased motivation to eat, a more profound counteracting physiological stimulus inhibiting increases in energy intake was present. Physical activity index, total energy expenditure as a multiple of resting energy expenditure, during energy-restricted diet with or without exercise as a function of the value at weight maintenance.
The dotted line is the line of identity data from Kempen et al. Under conditions where exercise training does affect TEE through an increase in AEE, that is, in healthy young adults under ad libitum food conditions, the increase in AEE is a function of the training status of the subjects. In untrained subjects, the initial exercise-induced increase in AEE is nearly twice the estimated cost of the training. We observed an increase in AEE of about 15 MJ per week in untrained subjects, preparing to run a half-marathon Figure 5.
Exercise training can even decrease walking cost in older adults, delaying the age-related decline in walking economy. Training distance and activity energy expenditure over a week interval in untrained subjects, training to run a half-marathon competition data from Westerterp et al.
The main determinants of energy expenditure are body size and body composition, food intake and physical activity. Food intake and physical activity affect energy expenditure directly and indirectly, the latter through the effect of food intake and physical activity on body size and body composition.
Energy expenditure reaches minimal values in subjects with anorexia nervosa and maximal values in morbid obese subjects or elite endurance athletes. Chronic energy deficiency reduces AEE through a lower physical capacity with the loss of muscle mass.
The reduction in TEE during energy restriction reduces weight loss. To maximize weight loss for obesity treatment, studies were designed on the effect of intermittent versus continuous energy restriction. However, although intermittent energy restriction consistently reduces body weight and adiposity, it does not seem to be superior to continuous energy restriction for weight loss.
The increase in TEE through physical activity is suggested to be constrained. Pontzer et al. They suggested a model of constrained TEE with metabolic adaptations to physical activity. An explanation is the difference in exercise economy between subjects with a low PAI being untrained and subjects with a high PAI being trained.
The training-induced increase in exercise economy limits the effect of an increase in physical activity on TEE and thus explains the curvilinear relation between physical activity and TEE as observed by Pontzer et al. In conclusion, maintenance metabolism is the largest component of TEE, especially at young and old age. Activity energy expenditure is the most variable component of TEE and can be increased when food intake allows. Energy expenditure increases with weight gain at adult age through a consequent increase in maintenance metabolism.
Energy restriction and overfeeding induce changes in energy expenditure as a function of changes in body size and body composition. Energy utilization and growth in breast-fed and formula-fed infants measured prospectively during the first year of life. Am J Clin Nutr ; 67 : — Assessing physical activity using wearable monitors: measures of physical activity. Article Google Scholar.
Tappy L. Thermic effect of food and sympathetic nervous system activity in humans. Total daily energy expenditure varies from person to person, depending on body size, sex, body composition, genetics, and activity level.
The total energy expenditure for a small, sedentary woman, for example, might be calories or less per day. The TDEE for a large, active man, on the other hand, can easily be over calories.
Because the man in this example has more muscle mass, a higher daily activity level, and is a larger person, his TDEE is greater. You can estimate your energy expenditure for a specific activity by using an online activity calculator , like the one provided by the American Council on Exercise. Online calculators also allow you to calculate your calories burned per day with the same formulas that are used in clinical settings. It's important to keep in mind that energy expenditure calculators provide an estimate of your daily calorie burn.
The number is based on the data that you provide. This data such as your activity level may change from day to day. No one's energy expenditure is exactly the same every single day, so to get the most out of your energy expenditure calculations, use them as a guideline for your daily calorie intake.
Adjust the numbers as needed based on changes in your activity level or changes in your weight. To lose weight, your body must use more calories than you eat. That means that you either need to increase your energy expenditure, decrease your calorie intake, or, ideally, do a combination of both to create a calorie deficit.
Most experts recommend creating a total calorie deficit of — calories per week to lose 1—2 pounds of body fat per week. But it's important to note that even if you get your calories from nutritious foods, you still need to reduce your total intake in order to lose weight. Creating a calorie deficit may sound simple on paper, but trying to lose weight can be a challenge.
Learning to change your daily habits is challenging. For many people, eating less is easier than trying to increase energy expenditure, because the amount of exercise needed to create a calorie deficit is fairly high. Being physically active in your day to day life offers a host of health benefits beyond its impact on energy expenditure. Exercise reduces your risk of diabetes and heart disease, and it's a natural mood and energy booster.
Although regular exercise is the most effective way to increase your energy expenditure, there are a couple of other proven methods. Scientists use a fancy name to describe the calories burned from the little movements you do during the day, not including exercise. This expenditure is called non-exercise activity thermogenesis or NEAT. Differences in BMR exist between genders and across ages.
These differences can largely be accounted for by differences in fat-free mass, which is proportional to BMR. Food-induced thermogenesis refers to the increase in energy expenditure following the ingestion of food. This increase in energy expenditure is a result of digestion, Skip to main content Skip to table of contents. This service is more advanced with JavaScript available.
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